An argument should be based on good reasoning, but sometimes, either due to the writer's inexperience or inability, or out of a desire to deliberately mislead, various fallacies may be introduced into an argument. Fallacies are faulty arguments. Some faulty arguments are so common that they have been categorized since Greek and Roman times. In general, fallacies involve misuses of rational, emotional, and ethical appeals. Unfortunately, people being what they are, fallacies can be convincing to those who do not think through the conclusions drawn, those who are easily swayed by prejudice or stereotypes, those who are emotionally distraught, or those who are swayed by charismatic and powerful speakers and writers. However, just because an argument works does not justify its use. And, for those, who know better, or are wiser, or calmer, or more thoughtful, the use of fallacious arguments is abhorrent and suggests a writer of low character, inexperience, or incompetence.
The following chart examines some of the more common fallacies that appear in arguments.
| Type | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Slippery Slope | One action will lead inevitably to increasingly more serious actions leading to an undesirable consequence (Clark 82; Barnet and Bedau 285-6) | Marijuana use leads to heavier drug use. |
| Hasty Generalizations | Conclusion is reached based on insufficient evidence. Often is linked with statements of prejudice and stereotyping (Clark 82) | Since he is a Muslim, he may well be a suicide bomber. |
| False Cause (Post Hoc) |
A cause is assumed because it precedes a situation (Ignores other issues which may play a role) (Clark 82; Barnet and Bedau 288) | Since gays have “come out of the closet,” divorce has been on the rise. |
| False Dilemma (Either/Or; Black and White) |
Speaker or writer suggests that there are only two opposing alternatives and ignores other possibilities (Yagelski and Miller 40; Barnet and Bedau 281; Corbett 88) | Americans who do not support the war in Iraq are unpatriotic. |
| False Authority | Authorities in one field treated as authorities in another field (Clark 82-3) | As a nationally esteemed medical doctor, Dr. David Hansen, who has frequently criticized the President's policy on immigration, has offered his own plan for handling the immigration crisis. |
| Ad Hominem | Instead of addressing the argument at hand, the person holding the position is attacked (Clark 83; Barnet and Bedau 283; Corbett 91). | Romney's views on economics are suspect. After all, he is a Mormon and probably believes in polygamy, too. |
| Appeal to Pity | An emotional appeal is made to the reader which is not justified by the facts of the case (Yagelski and Miller 36) | Even though I have not completed my homework and have frequently missed class, you should give me a decent grade because I am under a great deal of stress from work and problems at home. |
| Straw Man | Rather than fairly represent an opponent's view, a writer presents a skewed, extreme, or exaggerated example of the opponent's views which are then held up to ridicule and easily refuted (Yagelski and Miller 39) | If Hillary Clinton, who is in favor of abortion, has only one child, and believes that the world population must be controlled, becomes President, she will, no doubt, push for increasing the number of abortions, perhaps even limiting all American families to a single child. |
| Poisoning the Well | An argument is tainted by an association rather than evaluated on its claims (Barnet and Bedau 283) | Many of the early black leaders in the Civil Rights Movement were Communists, so blacks should never have been given their civil rights. |
| Red Herring | A topic is introduced to distract from the issue at hand (Clark 83; Corbett 92) | You question my vote on the war, but what about his vote on economics? |
| Appeal to Ignorance | An argument is made for or against a position on the grounds that people do not know the consequences of not acting (Barnet and Bedau 286) | If we do not pursue every possible interrogation method, who knows how many terrorist plots may go undetected? |
| Begging the Question (circular reasoning) |
A conclusion is presumed as part of the argument. In effect, the argument assumes a fact which has not yet been proven (Yagelski and Miler 38-9; Corbett 90-1). | Evolution is false because the Bible says God created the world in seven days. |
| Ignoring the Question | The issue at hand is not addressed, and the writer shifts to another topic. This is often used when a person doesn't want to face the question at hand (Yagelski and Miller 39). | The question of whether the IRS should be disbanded touches on an issue important to many Americans. After all, no one likes paying taxes, and the American people are tired of the wasteful spending of Congress. |
This chart identifies some common fallacies used in arguments, providing definitions and examples of each.
"Love is a Fallacy" is a humorous short story by Max Shulman, creator of Dobie Gillis, that illustrates how a knowledge of logical fallacies can be useful--after a fashion.
2010 Fall Film production at Culver City High School. Directed by Duncan Ballantine and produced by Katherine Maxwell, "Love is a Fallacy"' is an adaptation of the short story by Max Shulman about love, lust, and logic. Winner of the Best Youth Film at the 2010 Method Fest Independent Film Festival. IZZE Award for Best Actor in Youth Film - Jesse Pilchen