Ritual, in the broadest sense, is "behaviour (sic) prescribed by society in which individuals have little choice about their actions" (Hendry 65). These can be religious rituals, like baptism or circumcision, civil rituals like marriage, or cultural rituals like shaking hands. In the study of myth, Mircea Eliade argued that rituals "deliberately repeat . . . the acts [put in position by] gods, heroes and ancestors (qtd. in Thury and Devinney 412). For Eliade, rituals allow humans to re-enter "mythical time," to return to the moment of creation. Victor Turner argues that participation in ritual both transforms the individuals engaging in the ritual and transforms their society (Thury and Devinney 412). In myth, rituals
- "must be a repetitive social practice,
- "must be set off from the routines of day to day life,
- "must follow some sort of ritual schema" (that is, must follow a prescribed order of actions, often formal, stylized, and repetitive), and
- "must be encoded in myth"
Myths, therefore, are communal events that express specific meanings that emotionally engage its participants and are symbolic and vicarious, that is, imaginatively realized rather than actually committed (for instance, a symbolic sacrifice rather than an actual sacrifice) (Thury and Devinney 415). Rituals can be "means of communication" with the transcendent or spiritual realm, or as "means to symbolize transitions," where "people take up new responsibilities and new roles that are acknowledged by the society" (Caffrey).
Common Types of Rituals
Some common types of rituals include
- ancestor worship,
- life-cycle [or fertility] rituals,
- rituals of death and mourning,
- rites of passage,
- pilgrimages,
- rituals of sacrifice, and
- rituals of inversion (where normal social orders are relaxed, overturned, or suspended)
The Romans, Egyptians, and Chinese engaged in ancestor worship. Our modern day marriage ceremonies still include symbolic elements related to fertility rituals. Infant baptism and circumcision, and rituals associated with puberty or retirement are all examples of life-cycle rituals. Rituals of death and mourning would include the ancient Indian practice of Sati or suttee, where the wife would commit suicide or throw herself on her husband's funeral pyre; the British practice of the wake; or the common American practice of a funeral viewing. Rites of passage include the Jewish Bar Mitzvah and the Amish Rumspringa. Pilgrimages to Mecca (Islamic), Jerusalem (Jewish, Christian, Islamic), Rome (Catholicism), or to the 9/11 site in New York City (secular/national) remain common. For most Americans, the most common rituals of sacrifice are baptism ["Buried with him in baptism, wherein also ye are risen with him through the faith of the operation of God, who hath raised him from the dead," (King James Bible, Colossians 2.12)] and communion ["For as often as ye eat this bread, and drink this cup, ye do shew the Lord's death till he come" (King James Bible, I Corinthians 11.26)].
The most common rituals of inversion practiced in the U.S. are Halloween and Mardi Gras, which is an example of Carnival. During rituals of inversion, the normal social orders and customs are reversed or set aside. During Halloween, children engage in mild forms of mischief (smashing pumpkins, toilet papering yards) and often dress in costumes related to the dead - demons, ghosts, zombies, and so on. In Carnival, the commoner may exchange roles with the king. Sexual prohibitions are relaxed. Carnival is particularly popular in Catholic countries, especially Brazil (Cultural Anthropology). Spain continues to celebrate Carnival in late winter/early spring prior to Lent. The celebrations include music, dancing, and "colorful, traditional costumes" (Cameron).
Anthony F. C. Wallace: Typology of Rituals
Anthony F. C. Wallace was an anthropologist with the University of Pennsylvania before retiring in 1987 ("Background Note"). Wallace identified five types of rituals:
| Type | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Ritual as Technology | Rituals designed to change nature in some way: facilitate hunting, improve harvest (Keul 246) |
| Ritual as Therapy/Anti-Therapy | Rituals aimed to protect someone from harm or cause someone harm |
| Ritual as Ideology | Rituals focused on answering philosophical/religious questions about life. These can include rites of passage and rites of intensification that bring someone closer to a god or to the transcendent realm (for instance, meditation) |
| Rituals of Conflict or Rebellion | Rituals that reverse normal social orders or that allow people to behave in ways normally prohibited |
| Rituals of Salvation | Rituals that allow those estranged from a community to be re-instated. Catholic confession would be an example. |
| Rituals of Revitalization | Rituals aimed at reorganizing or re-inspiring a community, often through some supernatural or activist behavior or as prophesied. |
Arnold Van Gennep: Initiation Rites
Arnold Van Gennep was a "French ethnographer and folklorist" who studied rites of passage. His 1909 book The Rites of Passage outlined three broad categories of initiation rites as individuals change status within a community ("Arnold Van Gennep").
| Type | Explanation | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Separation | "The person or sacred object is separated from the rest of the community, either physically or ritually" (Webster) | Amish practice of shunning |
| Initiation | "Through a series of rites and/or physical experiences (circumcision, dancing, trances, fasts, shows) the initiate experiences a religious transformation or illumination" (Webster) (Death/Rebirth) | Baptism |
| Incorporation | "After the ceremony, the initiate is incorporated back into the community at large, though perhaps with an altered social status" (Webster) | Marriage |